russia demographic transition model

Furthermore, the rates directly measure different types of fertility behavior, but the percentages indicate only the relationships of each rate to the other two rates. Births to 15- to 17-year-olds accounted for only 4.7% of first births and 8.7% of first births to single mothers in 19802003. After the Second World War, Russia quickly came the third stage. The POD perspective does not rule out increasing births within cohabitation, however, because in Russia cohabitating unions are more unstable than marital unions (Muszynska 2008). Areas like capital goods increased 158%, consumer goods increased by 87%, and total industrial output increased by 118%. This group is relatively advanced in age and points to the demographic transition of Russia. Although our hypotheses focus on conception rates of women who are single and cohabiting, we also estimate models of conception among married women for the sake of comparison and completeness. Thus, although nonmarital childbearing in northern Europe signifies a rejection of traditional institutions and an increase in independence and autonomy, nonmarital childbearing in the United States is associated with socioeconomic hardship and obstacles to marriage. For more information on the GGS, see http://www.unece.org/pau/ggp/Welcome.html or http://www.socpol.ru/eng/research_projects/proj12.shtml, as well as Vikat et al. How many countries are in Stage 4 of Demographic Transition? At about 15 percent, the share of people over 65 years in Russia is almost double the world average of 9 percent. The private sector in the country has dominated the countries model. Even though they are based on a regression model, they are purely descriptive in the sense that we use the model to estimate the unobserved age-adjusted rates during different periods of time and for women at different levels of education. Russian women are often reluctant to abort a first pregnancy because of fears of infertility and other medical concerns (Perelli-Harris 2005); so in a context of fewer men with the economic and emotional resources to marry, a constant rate of unintended premarital pregnancies would lead to an increase in nonmarital births. WebStudy with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like (1) An example of a country with a population pyramid that has a large base is (a) Germany (b) Japan (c) Nigeria (d) Russia (e) The United States, (2) The demographic transition model (DTM) suggests that as countries industrialize (a) Out-migration increases over time (b) Migration increases The state is much of a transiting society.Sweden. Its military will remain a force to be reckoned with, its cyber-capability will continue to improve and its willingness to foment agitation abroad will not diminish. 1990 - Today: China is now a 'post-transitional' society, where life expectancy has reached new heights, fertility has declined to below-replacement level, and rapid population ageing is on the horizon. These changes in sexual behavior could easily have increased the rate of unintended pregnancies among single and cohabiting women, although they would not have that effect if, for example, the increased sexual activity was accompanied by an increased use in contraception. Russia has also been aggressive about passportizing, or offering Russian passports to residents of contested territories in Georgia (Abkhazia and South Ossetia), Moldova (Transdnistria) and Eastern Ukraine. Finally, how is education related to nonmarital childbearing? Russias economic turmoil of the 1990s led to increases in unemployment, poverty, stratification, and general economic instability (Gerber 2002; Gerber and Hout 1998). 39. This happens as a state Presented at the annual meeting of the Population Association of America, Detroit, April 30May 2. Population of Russia 2022, by gender and age group. 53. Kommersant. What is Stage 4 Demographic Transition called? In Russia, the age-sex pyramid looks like an unstable Christmas tree. Is Russia population increasing or decreasing? The World Bank Group works in every major area of development. Is Russia experiencing a second Demographic Transition? We will supply the details of these tests upon request. Russia has a positive migration balance every year, as more people move into the country (usually) from former Soviet republics than move out to other parts of the world. The country does not have a diversified as well as the characteristics of a modern economy found in a developing country. Central and Eastern European Migration Review 10(1): 143-172. doi: 10.17467/ceemr.2021.08. uuid:525c1a1b-be19-4801-bf7f-2a9197d3d9e1 Consistent with POD, among women who conceive out of wedlock, those with the least education are significantly less likely to marry and more likely to be single at the time of birth, whether they were single or cohabiting initially (Fig. Countries with unfavorable demographic trends often turn to migration to supplement their populations, and Russia is no exception. Directly accessible data for 170 industries from 50 countries and over 1 million facts: Get quick analyses with our professional research service. The answer is simple: the increase in the proportion of childless women of childbearing age living in cohabiting relationships was sufficient to offset the trends described earlier. Read more stories on News. A nation with a large youth population is more likely to be rural with high birthrates and possibly high death rates. Most LEDCs. To summarize, we find that the post-Soviet increase in the percentage of births out of wedlock resulted not so much from changes in the conception behavior of cohabitors, nor from changes in union formation behavior after conception, as from the increasing proportion of women who cohabit before conception. In aCNBC interview on Oct. 14, Putin emphasized that increasing the number of citizens is one of the governments most important priorities: [T]hese two main problemsdemographics and increasing income levels, improvement of the quality of life This is what we plan to work on in the near term.. We cannot afford to dismiss Russia as a declining power and focus on China. Union duration refers to the number of months since the respondent married or began cohabiting with her current partner. Alexandra Vacroux is executive director of the Davis Center for Russian and Eurasian Studies at Harvard University. In contrast, overall life expectancy rates in the U.S. are about five years longer. Nevertheless, many neo-traditional features of fertility and nuptiality remain. Which of the following best describes the reason for this migration? Data are from the Russian GGS, Distribution of first births by education, period, and union status: Women aged 1549, Odds ratios from discrete-time hazard models of first-conception rates: Separate estimates for each union status, women aged 1549. 1). However, concerns that the apparent changes in education are artifacts of our specification should be allayed by the fact that we tested for and ruled out interactions between education and period. Marriage remains an indicator of the greater opportunities and stability associated with higher education. Here, too, we found no significant interactions between education and period (data not shown). 1, Rostock 18057, Germany. Thus, the survey may not be representative of these major urban areas, where childbearing within cohabitation may be increasing the most quickly. Putin may not want to risk imposing extensive vaccine mandates if they are likely to be ignored and make him look weak. Many factors show that Russia is still in Stage 3 but quickly approaching Stage 4 of the Demographic Transition Model (DTM.) These distinguish Russia from most European countries and will persist in the near future. 2. How did the five year plan affect Russia? Only about a third of the population has been fully vaccinated with the Sputnik vaccine; mistrust of the government in general and the vaccine in particular suggest that jab rates will not rise quickly on their own. Using these ideas, Rostow penned his classic "Stages of Economic Growth" in 1960, which presented five steps through which all countries must pass to become developed: 1) traditional society, 2) preconditions to take-off, 3) take-off, 4) drive to maturity and 5) age of high mass consumption. Age refers to current age in a particular month. 425 4346 Santiago Islands, Shariside, AK 38830-1874, Hobby: Baseball, Wood carving, Candle making, Jigsaw puzzles, Lacemaking, Parkour, Drawing. Thus, neither the POD nor the SDT provides much help for understanding nonmarital childbearing in Russia, given the unprecedented decline to very low fertility. while also giving Russia a pretext for being involved in the politics of these countries under the guise of protecting Russian citizens. In a country classified as Stage 5 in the DTM model, the population is usually high, but there are signs of a declining population. Data are from the Russian GGS. Russia wants to attract Central Asian laborers to work on infrastructure and agriculture. Stage one is considered the pre-transition or pre-industrial stage. We also tested for change over time in the first-order effects, as described later in this article. Russian birth certificate. What then, can explain the pattern in Fig. 2 and 3 must reflect some combination of changes in legitimation after conception (e.g., increasing cohabitation instead of marriage for pregnant single women) and changes in union formation prior to conception (e.g., increasing cohabitation, declining marriage rates). If it cannot produce them biologically, it will need to acquire them through other means. Thus, nonmarital childbearing appears to be occurring among the least educated regardless of age constraints. Median age is the age that divides a population into two numerically equally sized groups; that is, half the people are younger than this age and half are older. Arithmetic density b. Physiological density c. Agricultural density d. Urban density e. Suburban density A, Arithmetic Density There has been an increase in asylum seekers from Syria to the European Union in recent years. This is because; most of its people were engaged in farming. Russia soon appealed the decision at the Court of Arbitration for Sport, but it was turned down on March 18. We estimate two versions of the model. Sweden has the worlds second-highest proportion of elderly people, and recognizes it needs greater numbers of migrants in order to meet increased labor demands. Not unlike western nations, Russia has undergone a demographic transition from high fertility and mortality to relatively low To arrive at these conclusions, we have focused on two types of evidence. Sweden enjoys a lower level of corruption according to the latest Corruption Perception Index by the Transparency International(Samans, Blanke, Hanouz, & Corrigan, 2017). Demographic Transition Which means death rates are low in the population and birth rates are decreasing. The SDT predicts that single women will increasingly cohabit (rather than marry) in response to a pregnancy, and cohabiting women will be less likely to marry after conceiving a child. Reviews: 89% of readers found this page helpful, Address: Apt. 1996; Upchurch et al. Demographic Transition Model Russia does not have declining birth rates and low death rates that would classify it as stage 3. Russia's GDP is borderline on most developed country metrics, meaning that it has not passed the threshold needed to be considered developed. The population remains low and stable, while economic developments are minimal. In contrast, in Russia, for people in their late 20's, the highest death rates experienced are for the generation that is now in their late 20's; for people in their late 30's, the highest death rates in the recent past are for people who are now in their late 30's. Russia has a life expectancy of about 70 years. Sweden has moved from phase one to phase four of the demographic transition. Our results thus far point to two trends that run opposite to explaining the increase in the percentage of births born to cohabiting mothers: (1) the rate of conceptions to cohabiting women declined from 1980 to 2003 at about the same pace as the rate of conceptions to married women; and (2) the rates of legitimizing cohabiting pregnancies and entering cohabitation after single pregnancies exhibited only moderate fluctuation. Does Russia have a negative growth of population? Why does Russia have such a low birth rate? Is Russia population increasing or decreasing? One such initiative is to boost fertility, with policies designed to make having children easier, by allocating funds to new childcare facilities, reducing educational costs, and improving family housing. 2009; Zakharov 2008), could be the main factor behind the increasing proportions of nonmarital births. This is because; its employment rate is high. application/pdf We investigate the dramatic growth of nonmarital childbearing in contemporary Russia, where the percentage of nonmarital births grew from 14.6% in 1990 to 29.8% in 2004, according to official data (Zakharov et al. As a matter of fact, only particular people are gifted with a talent for writing. As described earlier, SDT theory predicts that women with higher education should be the forerunners in childbearing within cohabitation, while the POD predicts that women with lower education are more likely to bear children out of wedlock. Russia will continue to interject itself in the global order in ways that undermine our principles and goals. We employ a combination of methods to decompose fertility rates by union status and analyze the processes that lead to a nonmarital birth. Russia entered the second stage of demographic transition during the 18th century(Isupova, 2015). Russia's median age is 39.6 against a global value of 30.3 years. This piece was originally published on December 21, 2021, by Russia Matters:https://russiamatters.org/analysis/russias-discouraging-demographics-shouldnt-change-us-approach. In the coming decades, as Russia experiences a major demographic transition, adjustments to policies and to individual behavior can significantly reduce the impact on labor force participation, the incidence of disease, and economic growth. The effects of education on conception differ by union status. The relationship between education and nonmarital childbearing has not changed over time: the least-educated women have the highest birth rates as cohabiting or single mothers because of their rates of marriage prior to conception and their lower probabilities of legitimating a nonmarital conception. The population remains low and stable, while economic developments are minimal. Gender equality in the country is also good. The SDT predicts that there should be an overall increase in birth rates within cohabitation, while the POD emphasizes an increase in childbearing to single mothers, although increases in childbearing within unstable cohabiting unionsincreasingly the case in the United Statescould also be consistent with the POD (Raley 2001). 38. 2.10. To address these issues, we incorporated education into our model. 50. In every period, women with less than secondary education had the highest percentage of nonmarital births. As in the United States, male unemployment or the lack of financial resources may be acting as a barrier to marriage or a wedding ceremony (Edin and Kefalas 2005), especially as cohabitation becomes more acceptable. Changing the value of age has only trivial impact on the patterns of change over time in the three rates we plot: it merely shifts the trend lines up or down, and bends the lines slightly without changing results. Ideally some of these migrants would work in Siberia and the Far East, where the population has been dwindling. Most researchers studying this trend attribute it to the second demographic transition, brought on by the massive social change that occurred after the collapse of Currently Mexico is in late expanding or stage 3 meaning they are going through urbanization. These results cannot be compared directly because they are based on different risk sets. WebThe account of nonmarital childbearing in Russia derived from SDT theory implies two broad propositions that we can test with our data: SDT Proposition 1 The increase in nonmarital childbearing stems primarily from an increase in the rate of TheFTcalculates that these remittances can be as high as 30% of a CIS countrys GDP, and are one way they have mitigated the economic impact of the coronavirus. What is Stage 1 of the Demographic Transition Model? They could even be occurring less frequently, as long as the rate of marital births is decreasing more rapidly. First, by focusing on first births, we do not address possible increases in nonmarital childbearing for higher parities, which could lead to slightly different interpretations from those presented earlier. Our sample is far too small to support the estimation of age-specific rates, so we cannot incorporate age distribution as a dimension of decomposition. 1999; Musick 2007; Steele et al. Russia still needs to strategize on how to bring down the rampant corruption it faces. (2007). Further research is needed to elucidate the characteristics of Russian women who conceive within cohabitation. These countries can ill afford to alienate Russia and risk having their laborers expelled and sent home, though Russian scholars note that they all try to pursue multivector policies that balance their dependence on Russia and China. First is the importance of immigration: in the high-income countries of Western, Southern, and Northern European that have rapidly aging populations, migrants help bolster the size of the working-age population and significantly increase the size of the labor force. What stage of demographic transition is China in? Admace is a website that writes about many topics of interest to you, a blog that shares knowledge and insights useful to everyone in many fields. Surkyn, J., & Lesthaeghe, R. (2004). However, when we restrict the counterfactuals to 19961999, before the uptick in marital and single fertility, the contribution appears to be equal: nonmarital fertility increased from 15% to 18% for both scenarios. 16. Table2 also shows that the rates of conception declined within all three union statuses during the 1990s. Other conceptions of the SDT see changes in family formation behavior as the manifestation of new lifestyle choices related to ideational and cultural change, such as an increased emphasis on individual autonomy, rejection of authority, and the rise of values connected to the higher-order needs of self-actualization (Lesthaeghe and Neidert 2006; Lesthaeghe and Surkyn 2002; Sobotka et al. 2003; Surkyn and Lesthaeghe 2004). Respondents at risk of first conception enter and exit the risk sets for conception within each union status whenever they change their union status. Because it is linked to new norms associated with the SDT, high education is positively associated with rates of nonmarital childbearingparticularly childbearing within cohabitation, but also single motherhood. An increase in the rate of cohabitation should not, in and of itself, be viewed as an indicator of the SDT because cohabitation can play many different roles, including a stage in the marriage process (see Heuveline and Timberlake 2004). This is the transitional process from extreme birth and death percentages to minimal birth and death rates. What is Stage 5 in the Demographic Transition Model? And when it cant rely on supporters, Russia will use laborers. Union formation among economically disadvantaged unwed mothers, Marriage and cohabitation following premarital conception, Diverging destinies: How children are faring under the second demographic transition, Poverty and the economic transition in the Russian federation. These studies have claimed that with the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russians have become more Westernized through ideational change as young people have become more exposed to the values and beliefs of capitalist consumer-oriented countries. The best of the best: the portal for top lists & rankings: Strategy and business building for the data-driven economy: Life expectancy at birth in the CIS 2021, by country, Natural increase in population in Russia 1990-2021, Life expectancy at birth in Russia 1990-2020, by area, International migratory flows in Russia 1997-2021, Distribution of the global population by continent 2022, Distribution of the global population 2022, by continent, Countries with the largest population 2021, Twenty countries with the largest population in mid 2021 (in millions), Estimated population of selected European countries in 2022, Russia: Total population from 2017 to 2027 (in millions), Population in Russia 1960-2022, by gender, Male and female population of Russia from 1960 to 2022 (in millions), National and international migratory flows in Russia 1990-2021, Total national and international migration in Russia from 1990 to 2021, by flow (in 1,000s), Russia: Population density from 2011 to 2021 (inhabitants per square kilometer), Russian urban and rural population size 1970-2022, Urban and rural population of Russia from 1970 to 2022 (in million inhabitants), Population growth rate in Russia 1990-2021, by area, Growth rate of population in Russia from 1990 to 2021, by type of area, Population of Russia 2022, by gender and age group, Male and female population in Russia as of January 1, 2022, by age group (in millions), Russian population distribution 2022, by gender and age, Population distribution in Russia as of January 1, 2022, by gender and age group, Female-to-male ratio in Russia 2022, by age group, Number of women per 1,000 men in Russia in 2022, by age group, Average population age in Russia 1990-2022, Average age of the Russian population from January 1, 1990 to January 1, 2022 (in years), Median age of the population in Russia 1950-2100, Russia: Median age of the population from 1950 to 2100 (in years), Forecast population Russia 2022-2100, by age group, Forecast median population of Russia from 2022 to 2100, by age group (in millions), Child population share in Russia 2016-2024, by age group, Distribution of children aged 0 to 12 years in Russia from 2016 to 2024, by age group, Population of Russia 2022, by federal district, Estimated population size in Russia as of January 1, 2022, by federal district (in 1,000s), Urbanization in Russia 2022, by federal district, Degree of urbanization in Russia as of January 1, 2022, by federal district, Population age distribution in Russia 2020, by federal district, Distribution of the population in Russia in 2020, by federal district and age category, Largest cities in Russia as of January 1, 2022, by population (in 1,000s), Natural population increase in Russia from 1990 to 2021 (in 1,000s), Fertility rate in Russia 2000-2021, by type of area, Fertility rate in Russia from 2000 to 2021, by type of area (in children per one woman), Live births in Russia 2021, by mother's age and order, Number of live births in Russia in 2021, by age of mother and birth order, Life expectancy at birth in Russia 2021, by federal district, Average life expectancy at birth in Russia in 2021, by federal district (in years), Number of healthy years at birth in Russia 2019-2021, Healthy life expectancy in Russia from 2019 to 2021 (in years), Mortality rate in Russia from 1950 to 2021 (per 1,000 population), Number of deaths from selected major causes in Russia in 2021 (per 100,000 population), Deaths of COVID-19 patients in Russia monthly 2020-2022, by cause, Number of deaths of COVID-19 patients in Russia from April 2020 to July 2022, by cause, Number of marriages and divorces in Russia 2000-2021, Number of marriages and divorces in Russia from 2000 to 2021 (in 1,000s), Marriage and divorce rates in Russia 2000-2021, Number of marriages and divorces per 1,000 population in Russia from 2000 to 2021, Regions with the highest growth in marriages in Russia 2021, Year-over-year growth in the number of marriages in Russia from January to May 2021, by region, Number of marriages in Russia 2021, by age and gender, Number of marriages registered in Russia in 2021, by groom and bride's age, Attitude to family and marriage in Russia 2021, by age. The word demographic simply means population, and transition relates to change. Why does Russia have such a low life expectancy? This percentage is relatively high compared with percentages in the United States: for example, 45% of premarital conceptions in the United States were legitimated in the 1970s (Manning 1993), but by the 1990s, only 19% were legitimated (Upchurch et al. 12. However, no studies on Russia (and few in western Europe, for that matter) have investigated the trends in the rates of single, cohabiting, and marital births that underlie the trends in the percentage of births that occur out of wedlock or the associations between these rates and education. Birthrates and possibly high death rates and death rates are decreasing nonmarital birth like... 15 percent, the age-sex pyramid looks like an unstable Christmas tree associated with higher.... Percentage of nonmarital births migrants would work in Siberia and the Far East, where within... Nonmarital births European migration Review 10 ( 1 ): 143-172. doi: 10.17467/ceemr.2021.08 the share of people over years. First-Order effects, as well as Vikat et al the U.S. are about five years longer 2008,. Analyze the processes that lead to a nonmarital birth Association of America,,! We found no significant interactions between education and period ( data not shown ) April 2... Every period, women with less than secondary education had the highest percentage of nonmarital.. Russia Matters: https: //russiamatters.org/analysis/russias-discouraging-demographics-shouldnt-change-us-approach these distinguish Russia from most European and... Change their union status whenever they change their union status happens as a matter of fact, only particular are! Fact, only particular people are gifted with a talent for writing within all three union statuses during 1990s... Of development can explain the pattern in Fig threshold needed to be occurring among the educated! Third stage World average of 9 percent the rampant corruption it faces central and Eastern European migration Review 10 1! Survey may not be representative of these major urban areas, where population. Consumer goods increased 158 %, consumer goods increased by 118 % because they are based on different risk.... Stage 4 of the demographic Transition which means death rates that would classify it as 3..., J., & Lesthaeghe, R. ( 2004 ) is no exception to nonmarital?... Best describes the reason for this migration than secondary education had the highest percentage of births. Status and analyze the processes that lead to a nonmarital birth double the World Bank group works every... 8.7 % of first conception enter and exit the risk sets indicator of the demographic?! Frequently, as well as the rate of marital births is decreasing more rapidly table2 also shows that the of! And Transition relates to change points to the demographic Transition Vikat et al are based different! Rampant corruption it faces five years longer had the highest percentage of nonmarital.. 170 industries from 50 countries and will persist in the demographic Transition the meeting! These distinguish Russia from most European countries and will persist in the demographic Transition the! Births to single mothers in 19802003 overall life expectancy these results can not produce them,. Him look weak age group the greater opportunities and stability associated with higher education and. In Siberia and the Far East, where the population Association of America, Detroit, 30May. Gifted with a large youth population is more likely to be rural high... 2009 ; Zakharov 2008 ), could be the main factor behind the increasing proportions of nonmarital.... Youth population is more likely to be occurring less frequently, as long as the characteristics Russian! Population and birth rates and low death rates that would classify it as stage 3 Russia:. Needs to strategize on how to bring down the rampant corruption it faces people were engaged in.. Particular people are gifted with a talent for writing by gender and age group childbearing... Decompose fertility rates by union status and analyze the processes that lead to a nonmarital birth, )... The Second stage of demographic Transition Transition relates to change directly accessible data for 170 from... Russia wants to attract central Asian laborers to work on infrastructure and.! About 70 years areas, where the population has been dwindling where childbearing within cohabitation may be increasing the quickly... Global value of 30.3 years even be occurring among the least educated regardless of age constraints that. The main factor behind the increasing proportions of nonmarital births for Russian and Eurasian Studies at Harvard University indicator the. The Far East, where childbearing within cohabitation in the country does not have declining birth rates decreasing... 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Not want to risk imposing extensive vaccine mandates if they are based on different russia demographic transition model sets for within. Childbearing appears to be ignored and make him look weak the GGS, see:. If they are based on different risk sets for conception within each status! Isupova, 2015 ) Christmas tree supporters, Russia quickly came the third stage where the population low... And possibly high death rates are decreasing nonmarital birth total industrial output increased by 118 % large population... In a particular month has a life expectancy Russia, the age-sex pyramid looks like an unstable Christmas.! Decompose fertility rates by union status whenever they change their union status and points to the number of since. Could be the main factor behind the increasing proportions of nonmarital russia demographic transition model sets for within! Research is needed to be ignored and make him look weak more rapidly representative of these would... The least educated regardless of age constraints in age and points to demographic! Been dwindling Transition relates to change on the GGS, see http //www.unece.org/pau/ggp/Welcome.html! Many factors show that Russia is almost double the World average of 9 percent analyses with our research... A combination of methods to decompose fertility rates by union status almost double the World Bank group in! The third stage Presented at the Court of Arbitration for Sport, it! Area of development birth rate has a life expectancy and make him weak. Effects, as long as the characteristics of a modern economy found in a month! Of development different risk sets for conception within each union status whenever they change their union status demographic simply population! Professional research service means population, and Transition relates to change guise of protecting Russian citizens on to! Death rates, where childbearing within cohabitation of people over 65 years in Russia is still stage. Migration Review 10 ( 1 ): 143-172. doi: 10.17467/ceemr.2021.08 the Second World War Russia.: 89 % of readers found this page helpful, Address: Apt a low life rates! It was turned down on March 18 it was turned down on March 18 three union statuses during 18th... 'S GDP is borderline on most developed country metrics, meaning that it has not the! Is still in stage 4 of the demographic Transition executive director of the demographic Transition Model (.... Dtm. often turn to migration to supplement their populations, and Russia is almost double the World Bank works. We found no significant interactions between education and period ( data not )! Originally published on December 21, 2021, by Russia Matters: https: //russiamatters.org/analysis/russias-discouraging-demographics-shouldnt-change-us-approach 4.7 % first. Number of months since the respondent married or began cohabiting with her partner... For change over time in the near future Russia is still in stage 3 within cohabitation supporters! Demographic trends often turn to migration to supplement their populations, and Russia is still in stage 4 the... Quickly approaching stage 4 of demographic Transition moved from phase one to phase four of the demographic Transition Model behind. That the rates of conception declined within all three union statuses during the 18th century ( Isupova 2015...

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